Shi’I Islam and Redemptive Suffering

Shi’i Isla= m and Redemptive Suffering

Thomas D. Watts=

The Un= iversity of= Te= xas at = Ar= lington

Abstract

The paper discusses the central role of redempt= ive suffering in Shi’i Islam. The paper divides as follows: First, an introduction and brief historical overview of Shi’i Islam; Second, a discussion on the role = of redemptive suffering in Shi’i Islam (contrasted with Sunni Islam); Th= ird, some possible implications for current policies in the Middle East and elsewhere. Shi’i Islam is a product of age-old persecution at the hands o= f a Sunni majority, represented in a central, traumatic way by the death of Hus= ayn in 680 at Kar= bala. Intercession plays a key role in the redemptive process in Shi’= ;i piety and belief.

It is not intended that this paper be an extens= ive theological and philosophical treatment of a complex subject, but rather th= at of a general overview, with some implications drawn for current policies to= ward Shi’i Islam, under considerable current debate. Nuanced policies are impossi= ble without a thorough understanding of Shiite beliefs on this and on other matters.

Introduction

        &= nbsp;   Shi’i Islam is the second largest branch of Islam, numbering approximately 10-15%= of all Muslims. “ShiatR= 21; is an Arab word meaning the party of Ali.   Shiite Islam itself originat= ed as a political movement in support of Ali, a cousin and son-in-law of the foun= der of Islam, Muhammad, as what they regarded as his rightful leadership of the Islamic state. Their opponent= s, the Sunnis, supported the notion that the legitimate successor to Muhammad shou= ld be an elected member of his tribe. &n= bsp; A larger question emerged here, as al-Ţabāţabā&#= 8217;ī (1975:10) points out, a question over “not so much who should be the successor of the Holy Prophet as what the function and qualifications of su= ch a person would be.” Shiit= es argued that “only the blood line could be the recipient of Muhammad&#= 8217;s divine guidance, (and) they believed the Prophet had designated Ali as his political successor and had imparted to him the power of interpreting relig= ious knowledge.” (Atkins, 2003).

        &= nbsp;   The tragic and often violent divisions in Islam between Sunnis and Shiites impa= ct the differences between the two today.   The Shi’i have experie= nced oppression and martyrdom, and most importantly have viewed themselves in th= is way.   They view themselv= es as a long-suffering people, a people with (in a sense) a better understanding = of pain and suffering than the Sunnis. This helps to understand the concept of redemptive suffering in Shii= te Islam, and as well helps explain their accentuated view of justice. Their concept of justice is so adv= anced that they even view it as “an intrinsic quality of the Divine Nature…” (al-#= 4;abāţabā’ī, 1975:11). Shi’i Islam c= ries out for a deeper meaning of the bed of pain that Jesus refers to, of the gnawing and painful reality of suffering.   It should not be surprising = that the Shi’i have developed a complex and advanced theory of suffering o= ver that of the Sunni, and coming remarkably close to that of Catholic Christia= nity (Bill and Williams, 2002).   Kiener (2002:3) has remarked that the “ethos of Shi’ite Islam is that of suffering and pious martyrdom.”

        &= nbsp;   Islam is a world religion with over 1.3 billion adherents (one of the fastest gro= wing religions in the world). It is indeed a world religion, in that only about 20% of all Muslims are Arab (“Islam.” 2001).  &n= bsp; It shares with Christianity a tendency to be diverse and multifacete= d, and thus hard to generalize about. This considerable diversity is demonstrated by perusing the massive encyclopedia of Islam by Glasse (2001), which has over 1,300 entries, cover= ing everything from art, to economics, to law, to theology, and more. Islam is “all-encompassing, = with a total hold on people’s lives that is virtually unmatched in any other religion. It has survived thr= ough the Middle Ages, and has been in existence now in three different millennia= ” (Watts, 2003:13).

Historical Overview

        &= nbsp;   Muhammad (570-632 CE), the founder of Islam, claimed to receive messages from the an= gel Jibril (Gabriel), messages that ultimately became the “Quŕ’an (Koran).   After the deat= h of Muhammad, Islam was torn by conflict, and split into a Sunni majority and a Shiite minority movement, different rites developed, and the Sharīa (h= oly law) developed (Turner, 1993:299). <= /span>Muhammad’s only daughter, Fatima (a person most revered by the Shiites) could not succ= eed her father after his death in 632 CE, so three caliphs took control from 632-656 CE.   A group eme= rged, the Shias, who were followers of Muhammad’s son-in-law, Ali ibn Abi T= alib (600-661 CE).

        &= nbsp;   For the Shiites, Ali was the first legitimate caliph, with the other three being usurpers. Eventually, Ali “was driven into increasing obscurity, and was assassinated by a break-away group (the Kharijites), ibn Muljam” (Bowker, 1970:131). Ali’s burial place, in Najav, Iraq= , is now one of the most famous of Muslim shrines.   Najaf became a “center of opposition to the Sunni government of Sadam Husayn” (Adamec, 2001:204).

        &= nbsp;   Ali’s second son, Hussein, was killed at Kerbala by Yazid I, on his historic jour= ney to Kufah.   He was looked= at as a martyr by the Shi’i, and his memory and his actions have been raise= d to legendary status and acclaim in Shiite Islam.   The “10^th of Muharran (680) has been mourned by Shi’ites with passion plays, reenacting the scenes at Karbala” (Adamec, 2002:121).   Thi= s event “helped to produce a rapid development of the opposition party to Uma= yyad rule, centred upon the claims of the line of Álī.” (Lewis, 2002:68).

        &= nbsp;   The early Shiites soon divided into several factions, the majority today being = the Twelve-Imam Shiites (to be found in greater numbers in Iran<= span style=3D'font-family:Arial'>, Iraq<= span style=3D'font-family:Arial'>, Lebanon, etc.).    Others include the Ism= ailis and the Zaydis.   The cen= tral belief of Twelve-Imam Shiites “is the occultation (or disappearance f= rom view) of the 12^th Imam. The 12^th Imam is considered to be the only legitimate and just ruler…” (“Shiites”, 2001:1).=

        &= nbsp;   In Ira= n, the Safavid adoption of a Shiite state religi= on helped to cement the hold of the Shiites over a significant (but still minority) part of Islam. The Iranian revolution of 1978-1979 marked a new period in Shiite history.   The “Ayatollah Khomeini’s insistence that Iran’s revolution was an Islamic, not just a Shi’i, revolution,” notes Esposito (1998:163), “and his call for others to follow suit inspired not only Shi’i militant outbursts in Saudi Arabia and the Gulf but also, initially, admiration among Sunni Muslims and organizations.”

        &= nbsp;   Shiite Islam has on occasion infused the larger body of Islam with an enthusiasm a= nd vigor which points to the early origins and minority status of Shiite Islam. This is discussed at length by Col= e and Keddie (1986).   Certainl= y, one cannot understand Shi’i Islam’s views on suffering, or on any o= ther topic, without first perusing the colorful and turbulent history of ShiR= 17;i Islam.

Redemptive Suffering

        &= nbsp;   Perhaps it is most useful to begin any discussion of the Shiite concept of redempti= ve suffering with the experiences of a person, Husayn, rather than with a more abstract concept or idea.   Ayoub (1978:27) states that the family or household of Muhammad “occupies a central place in Shī’ī piety.   Their suffering and sorrow a= re in turn intensely concentrated in the sufferings of one man, ‘the wronged martyr’, Imam Husayn, son of Álī Ibn Abī Tālib. Indeed, all suffe= rings before are but a prelude to his, the final act in a long drama of tribulati= on. He is the seal of the martyrs and = their chief. All suffering and mart= yrdom after him are only modes of participation in his martyrdom…” For Shi’i Islam, it could be= said that “the tragedy of Karbala was part of the divine economy, that Husayn’s death was necessary as = the means whereby the Islamic community of the Shia might obtain the benefit of intercession.” (Pinault, 1999:288).   There are a number of parabl= es here between the Shiite view of Husayn’s foreknowledge of what was to come, and his actions, and that of Jesus for Christians (with of course the important distinction that Christians acknowledge the divine nature of Jesus). The actions of Husayn represented “a conscious confrontation and a courageous resistance fo= r a sacred cause” (“Every Day is Ashura and Every Land is Kerbala.”)

        &= nbsp;   “It would be difficult to exaggerate the impact and importance of the martyrdom= of Husayn for Shi’is,” notes Momen (1985:32-33). “Although it was the usurpat= ion of ‘Ali’s rights that is looked upon by Shi’is as the event initiating their movement and giving it intellectual justification, it was = Husayn’s martyrdom that gave it its impetus and implanted it’s ideas deep in t= he heart of the people.”   Husayn is the “Lord of the Martyrs” (Sobhani, 2001:113). “The re-livi= ng of the legendary suffering of Hussein…is central in Shi’ite communities,” states Israeli (2002:25). “The ta’zia, a kind of passion play, displayed on ‘Ashura Day by processions of the pious who beat themselves, is the apex of identification with the suffering of Hussein.” For the Shiites, the 10^{th of
Muharram “is the terrib=
le
anniversary of the martyrdom of Husayn and is the most tragic and sorrowful=
day
of the year”(Glasse, 2001:188).}

        &= nbsp;   For Shiites, Husayn had sacrificed himself and had done so as an atonement for = the sins his grandfather’s people had committed. Bill and Williams (2002:49) aver t= hat:

Jesus and Husayn each can be described as the “martyr of martyrs” in their respective religions…As mart= yrs par excellence, Jesus and Husayn offered themselves for the redemption of sinners. Each hero foresaw hi= s fate as martyr.   Each had his choice of passing up this painful role…each chose death, apparently f= or similar reasons.   Each understood that this kind of gesture, the ultimate sacrifice, would leave a lasting legacy while serving to atone for humanity, which had lost its way.=

        &= nbsp;   For Shiites, redemptive suffering can take place through various means, includi= ng identifying with the suffering experienced by Husayn, suffering experienced= by Muhammad’s family (and especially by Fatima, Muhammad’s daughte= r) and the suffering experienced by the various imams and saints over history.=    Intercession and redemption = are key themes here.   Redemp= tion is viewed as a “fulfillment through suffering,” with a basic assumption being that “all suffering can, in some sense, be regarded = as redemptive where faith is present….suffering becomes the great teacher for the pious, their road to salvation” (Ayoub, 1978:23-24).   The rather striking parallels between Catholic Christianity and Shiite Islam has already been noted. O’Mahony, et. al., (2004) has explored these parallels at some length.   Belloc (1968) argued critica= lly that Islam was fundamentally a Catholic “heresy.” It broke off from the parent relig= ion (Catholicism) so it is understandably close to it in some ways, yet obvious= ly it has rejected much (Christ’s divinity, etc.).

        &= nbsp;   The many sufferings of the Imams over the centuries have been permitted by Allah with a purpose in mind.   The purpose of this is redemptive, as expiation for sins and transgressions committed.   The imams an= d the Islamic saints intercede for pious Muslims before God.   Intercession plays a large r= ole in Shiite theology, such a la= rge role that Sunnis will sometimes critique this view, arguing that such a perspective interferes with the notion of the absolute oneness and sovereig= nty of God and similar aspects.   One could compare this view with the critical perspectives of Protes= tant Christianity toward Catholic Christianity.   In this view, Mary, the sain= ts, intercession in general, is not really necessary, in that the individual believer has Scripture in hand, the Word in hand, and can freely and without any problem communicate with one’s Savior and God.<= /p>
        &= nbsp;   Shi’i Islam would most likely respond that intercession is a means to an end, that end being God, and an anticipated joining with God in the bliss of paradise. “It is relate= d that on the long Day of Resurrection, when people are waiting for judgment and tortured with thirst,” notes Bill and Williams (2002:46), “the martyred Imam Husayn will dispense the sweet waters of the Pool of Kawthar = to the faithful, and none who taste it will ever suffer from thirst again.” Shi’i Isl= am would certainly state here that Imam Husayn is not Allah, nor is Ali, nor i= s Fatima, nor indeed is Muhammad. &nbs= p; They are agents of God, intermediaries, they intercede with God, they are here to help good Muslims reach Paradise, after having experienced suffering (meaningful, redemptive suffering, they would = posit) on this earth, suffering that is the lot of everyone.

        &= nbsp;   Ayoub (1978:24) avers that “suffering is proportionate to man’s piety= and status with God.   Thus prophets have the greater share of afflictions…their sufferings are purposeful in that they provide an example for the pious and a test of their own faith and endurance.” In this respect, Ayoub notes that Muhammad’s beloved daughter, Fatima, “is considered the mistress par excellence of the house of Sorrows” (pp. 24-25).   Even Muhammad’s own da= ughter, then, is not spared the cup of suffering which is the lot of humankind, but even received more suffering because of her closeness to Allah.<= /span>

Conclusion<= /p>

        &= nbsp;   Our discussion of this topic is not meant to be exhaustive.   Suffering does have redempti= ve purposes and meanings for the Shiites.   For the Sunnis, suffering is= a test.   For the Shiites, = it is a test, and more.   It is= an opportunity, it is a chance for merit to be gained.    Suffering cannot be let “go to waste.” It= can be transformed into a redemptive experience and action, it can bring merit = to the sufferer, it can glorify God.

        &= nbsp;   Our understanding of the Shiites in Iraq<= span style=3D'font-family:Arial'>, of the Shiite response to the 2003 war in Iraq<= span style=3D'font-family:Arial'>, of Shiites worldwide, is enhanced by a close = study of Shiite theology, of the Shiite concept of redemptive suffering in particular. Shi’i Islam= has experienced a long history of oppression and suffering, and indeed their understanding of redemptive suffering certainly reflects that.

        &= nbsp;   What of the charge made that Shiite Islam (and Islam) has a core doctrine of aggression and violence? Crit= ics making this charge claim that this violence can take exterior form (violenc= e to others) (Trifkovic, 2002), or interior form (self-mutilation practices duri= ng Muharram).   The Shiites “included the suicide bombers of Hisbollah (who killed 241 Marines in= Beirut in 1983)….” (Kiener, 2002:3).    Are not many Christians actually experiencing “suffering” at the hands of Islam (Sudan= , for example)?    There is not time or s= pace to sufficiently answer that question here, nor is it the intent of this pap= er to do so.   Perhaps we co= uld only say here that Shiite Islam was birthed in a violent time.   The lifetime of Muhammad (57= 0-632 CE) was a period in the Arabian desert that was fille= d with bloodshed.   Hardship and suffering was an expected inheritance for everyone.   Compared with that time, tha= t era, Muslims would claim that Islam brought more peace and civility than had been known.   The debate here = goes on, and will probably go on for the foreseeable future.    While it is not possib= le to examine all these questions here, we can certainly say that more understand= ing of the Shiite conception of redemptive suffering can inform our thinking he= re in pronounced ways.

References

Ada= mec, Ludwig W. The A to Z of Islam. Lanham, M.D.: The Scarecrow Press, In= c.,

2002.

Ada= mec, Ludwig W. Historical Dictionary of Islam. Lanham, MD., & London: The

Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2001.

Afk= hami, Mahnaz ed. Faith and Freedom: Women’s Human Rights in the Muslim

World. Syracuse<= /st1:City>, NY.: <= span style=3D'font-size:11.0pt;font-family:Arial'>Syracuse University Press, 1995.

Al-= Ţabāţabā’ī, Muhammad Husayn Shi’ite Islam. Albany, N.Y.: State= University of

New York<= /st1:State> Press, 1975.

Arberry, Arthur John J. The Koran Interpreted: A Translation, New York<= /st1:State>: Macmillan

Publishing Co., 1976.

Arm= our, Rollin S. Islam, Christianity, and the West: A Troubled History. Maryknoll,

N.Y.: Orbis Books, 2002.

Atk= ins, Corrine “The Shrine of Islam’s Tragic Divisions,” Hist= ory Today 53(11),

November, 2003, pp.6-7.

Ayo= ub, Mahmoud Redemptive Suffering in Islam: A Study of = the Devotional Aspects

of ‘Ashura’ in Twelver<= /span> Shi’ism.   The Hague= , The Netherlands: Mouton

Publishers, 1978.

Bal= l, Terence & Dagger, Richard Political Ideologies and the Democratic Id= eal, 3^rd

ed. New York<= /st1:State>: Addison Wesley Longman, Inc., 1999.

Ban= nerman, Patrick Islam in Perspective: A Guide to Islamic Society, Politics and

Law. New York<= /st1:State>, NY.: Routledge Publs., for the Royal Institute of =

International Affairs, 1988.

Bel= loc, Hillaire The Great Heresies.   = Freepoi= nt, N.Y.: Books for Libraries Press, <= o:p>

1968.

Bil= l, James A., & Williams, John Alden Roman Catholics and Shi’i Muslims: Prayer,

Passion & Politics. C= hapel Hill & London: The University of North Carolina

Press, 2002.

Bow= ker, John Problems of Suffering in Religions of the World. Cambridge<= span style=3D'font-size:11.0pt;font-family:Arial'>, = U.K.:

<= span style=3D'font-size:11.0pt;font-family:Arial'>Cambridge University Press, 1970.

Butterworth, Charles E. & Zartman, I. W., eds. Between the State= and Islam.   New

York, NY.: Cambridge University Press, 2000.

Chi= lds, Marquis W. Sweden: The Middle Way. New Haven<= span style=3D'font-size:11.0pt;font-family:Arial'>, CT.: <= span style=3D'font-size:11.0pt;font-family:Arial'>Yale<= span style=3D'font-size:11.0pt;font-family:Arial'> University

Press, 1936.

Choudhury, Masudul A. Contributions to Islamic Economic Theory: A Study in

Social Economics. <= st1:State>New York<= /st1:State>: St. Martin= ’s Press, 1986.

Choudhury, Masudul A., & Quinlan, Hamid, eds. Islamic Social Welfare Function.

Herndon, VA.: American Trust Publications, 1983.=

Chu= rchill, Winston, Radio Broadcast, October 1, 1939.

Cla= rk, Grace C. “Pakistan’s = Zakat System: A Policy Model for Developing Countries

as a Means of Redistributing Income to the Elderly Poor”, Social Thought:

Journal of Religion in the Social Services 20 (3/4), 2001, pp. 47-75.

Cla= rk, Grace C. Pakistan’s Zakat and Ushr System: An Islamic Public Welfare

System in a Developing Country. Ph.D. Dissertation. Ann Arbor= , MI.:

University Microfilms International, 1985.

Col= e, Juan R.I. & Keddie, Nikki R., eds. Shi’ism and Social Protest. New Haven= &

London: Yale<= span style=3D'font-size:11.0pt;font-family:Arial'> University Press, 1986.

Cra= btree, Sara Ashencaen & Baba, Ismail “Islamic Perspectives in Social Work

Education: Implications for Teaching and Practice”, Social Work Educat= ion,

20 (4), 2001, pp. 469-481.

Dea= n, Hartley & Khan, Zafar “Muslim Perspec= tives on Welfare”, Journal of Social

Policy, 26 (2), 1997, pp. 193-209.

Den= ny, Frederick M. “Islam.” In: Swatos, Jr., William H., ed., Encyclopedia of

Religion and Society. Walnut Creek, CA.: Alta Mira Press, 1998, pp. 239-

242.

Eidelberg, Paul “Another Evil Empire.”

www.freeman.org/m_online/nov.97/eidelbe.3.htm<= /a>. 0= 1/16/2003.

Esp= osito, John L. ed. The Oxford History of Islam.<= span style=3D'font-size:11.0pt;font-family:Arial'> <= span style=3D'font-size:11.0pt;font-family:Arial'>Oxford, NY.: <= span style=3D'font-size:11.0pt;font-family:Arial'>Oxford University

Press, 199= 9.

Esp= osito, John L. Islam: The Straigh= t Path, 3^rd. ed. New York: Oxford University

Press, 1998.

Esp= osito, John L. & Burgat, Francois Modernising Islam: Religion in the Public

Sphere in Europe and the Middle East. London, = U.K.: C. Hurst, 2002.

= 220;Every Day is Ashura and Every Land is Kerbala.”

http://www.ashura.com/home.html. Accessed 10/02/2003.

Fernea, Elizabeth W. In Search= of Islamic Feminism: One Woman&#= 8217;s Global Journey.

New York, NY.: Doubleday, 1998.<= /p>
Gellner, Ernest Muslim Society. New York<= /st1:State>, NY.: <= span style=3D'font-size:11.0pt;font-family:Arial'>Cambridge University Press,

1981.

Gla= sse, Cyril New Encyclopedia of Islam: A Revised Edition of the Concise

Encyclopedia of Islam. Thousand Oaks, CA.: Alta Mira Press, 2001.<= /span>

Hassan, Riaz Faithlines= : Muslim Conceptions of Islam and Society. Oxford, U.K:

<= span style=3D'font-size:11.0pt;font-family:Arial'>Oxford University Press, 2002.

Hitti, Philip K. The Arabs: A Short History. Chicago: H. Regn= ery Publs., 1967.

Hoexter, Miriam & Eisenstadt, S.N. The Public Sph= ere in Muslim Societies. = Albany,

N.Y.: State= University of New York<= /st1:State> Press, 2002.

Hourani, George F. & Marmura, Michael E. Islamic Theology and Philosophy= :

Studies in= Honor of George F. Hourani. Boulder, CO.: Net= Library, Inc.,

1999.

Hun= tington, Samuel P. The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order= .

New York<= /st1:State>: Simon & Schuster, 1996.

Ingersoll, David E., Matthews, Richard K. & Davison, Andrew The Philosophic Roo= ts

of Modern Ideology, 3^rd ed.&nb= sp; Upper Saddle River, NJ.: Prentice-Hall, 2001.

Int= ernational Forum on Globalization. Al= ternatives to Economic Globalization. San

Francisco, Ca., 2002.

= 220;Islam”. The Columbia Encyclopedia, = 6^thed. 2001, pp.1-3   =

www.bartleby.com/65/is/Islam.html 02/14/2002= .

Isr= aeli, Raphael “A Manual of Islamic Fundamentalist Terrorism,” Terr= orism and

Political Violence, 14(4), Winter, 2002, pp. 23-40.

Jomier, Jacques How to Underst= and Islam. Chicago, IL.: Kazi Publications, Inc.,

1996.

Jomier, Jacques The Bible and = the Qur’an.&nb= sp; San Francisco: Ignat= ius Press, 2002.

Kelly, Kevin “The New Communism – The New Age of Terrorism: Futurists

Respond”, Futurist= , 36(1), January/February, 2002, p. 22.

Kiener, Ronald C. “The Jewish Experience of Suffering.”&nbs= p; Wisdom House. Oct. 27,

            2002. http://shakti.trincoll.edu/~kiener/Suffering_talk.htm= .   Accessed <= /p>
            09/24/2003.

Lawrence, Bruce B. “Islam”. In Crim, Keith, Bullard, R= oger A. & Shinn, Larry D., eds.

The Perennial Dictionary of= World Religions.= San Francisco, CA.: Harper &

Row Pu= bls., 1981, pp. 345-358.        =

Levy, Reuben The Social Structure of Islam. New York: Rout= ledge, 2000, 1957.

Lewis, Bernard The Arabs= in History, 6^th ed. New York: Oxford University Press, <= /p>
2002.

McG= overn, S.J., Arthur F. Marxism: An American Christian Perspective. Maryknoll,

NY.: Orbis Books, 1980.

Mir= -Hosseini, Ziba Islam and Gender: The Religious Debate in Contempora= ry Iran<= /st1:country-region>.

Princeton, NJ.: Princeton University Press, 1999.

Mernissi, Fatima Islam and Democracy: Fear of the Modern World. Boul= der, CO.:

Perseus, 1993.

Mom= en, Moojan An Introduction to Shi’i: Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver

Shi’ism. New Haven & London: Yale<= span style=3D'font-size:11.0pt;font-family:Arial'> University Press, 1985.

Nasr, Seyyed H. Islamic Life and Thought. = Boston, MA.: G. Allen & Unwin, 1981.

Netton, Ian Richard A Popular Dictionary of Islam. Chicago: NTC Publ. Group,

1997.

Nigro, Samuel A. Is There Love in Islam?&n= bsp; St. Louis, MO.: Central Bureau, CCUA, <= /o:p>

1998.

O&#= 8217;Mahony, Anthony, Peterburs, Wulsta= n & Ali Shomali, Muhamme= d, eds. A

Catholic-Shi’a Dialogu= e: Studies in Theology and Spirituality. Melisende,

U.K.: Fox Communications &Publications, 2004.

Patai, Raphael The Arab Mind. New York<= /st1:State>: Hatherl= eigh Press, 2002.

Pay= ne, Malcolm Modern Social Work Theory, 2^nd ed. Chicago, IL.: Lyceum, Inc.,
1997.

Pin= ault, David “Shia Lamentation Rituals and Reinterpretations of the Doctrine= of

Intercession: Two Cases from Modern India,” History of Religions, 38(3)= ,

February, 1999, pp. 285-305.

Qutb, Sayyid Social Justice in Islam. Oneonta, NY.: Islamic Publications

International, 1953.

Rob= inson, Neal Christ in Islam and Christianity. Albany, N.Y.: State= University of

New York<= /st1:State> Press, 1991.

Rya= n, Patrick J. “The Roots of Muslim Anger”, America, 185(17), November 26, <= /o:p>

2001, pp. 1-8.

Ryle, Edward J., “The New Social Question,” Book review of Rosanvallon, Pierre

Rethink= ing the Welfare State (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press,

2000) in <= u>Theological Studies, 61 (4), December, 2000, p. 799.

Sabra, Adam Poverty and Charity in Medieval Islam: Mamluk= Egypt= , 1250-1517.

Cambridge<= span style=3D'font-size:11.0pt;font-family:Arial'>, = U.K.: <= span style=3D'font-size:11.0pt;font-family:Arial'>Cambridge University Press, 2000.

Schimmel, Annemarie Islam. Albany, NY.: <= span style=3D'font-size:11.0pt;font-family:Arial'>State= University of New York<= /st1:State> Press,

1992.

= 220;Shiites.” The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6^th ed., 2001, pp. 01-02.

http://www.bartleby.com/65/sh/Shiites.html

Siddique, M. Organization of Government Under the Holy Prophet. Lahore, = Pakistan:

Islamic Publications, 1988.

Sob= hani, Ayatollah, Ja’far Doctrines of ShiR= 17;i Islam. <= st1:place>London & New York<= /st1:State>: I.B. Ta= uris

Publishers, in Association with The Institute of Ismaili= Studies, 2001.

Tibi, Bassam Islam Between Culture and Politics New York<= /st1:State>: Palgrav= e, in association

with the Weather= head Center of International Affairs, Harvard University,

2001.

Tri= fkovic, Serge Sword of the Prophet: The Politically Incorrect Guide to Islam:

History, Theology, and Impact on the World. Boston, MA.: Regina Orthodox
Press, 2002.

Tur= ner, Bryan S. “Islam.” In Outhwaite, William & Bottomo= re, Tom, eds., The =

Blackwell Dictionary of Twentieth-Century Social Though<= /span>t. Malden, MA.:

Blackwell Publs., Inc., 1993= , pp. 299-301.

Tur= ner, Bryan S. Islam: Critical Concepts in Sociology New York<= /st1:State>: Routled= ge, 2002.

Viorst, Milton In the Shadow of the Prophet:&nb= sp; The Struggle for the Soul of Islam.

Boulder, CO.: Westview Press, 2001.

Warraq, Ibn, ed. The Quest for the Historical Muhammad. Amherst, NY.:

Prometheus Books, 2000.

Watts, Thomas D. “Freedom and= the Welfare State”, Social Justice Review, 93 (11-

12), November-December, 2002, pp. 167-172.

Watts, Thomas D. “Islam and S= ocial Welfare”, In Loessin, Jon K., ed. The Year 2002

Proceedings of the ASSR-SW. <= /span>Dallas, Tx: Association for the Scientific Study=

of Religion – Southwest, 2= 002, pp. 43-47. This was originally delivered at the         ASSR-SW 2002 Meeting, = March 9, 2002, Irving, Tx.

Watts, Thomas D. “Islam, Soci= al Needs and the Voluntary Sector: Zakat and =

Beyond.” In Loessin, Jon K., ed. The Year 2003 Proceedings of the ASSR-

SW. Dallas, TX: Association for the Scientif= ic Study of Religion-Southwest,

2003, pp. 13-19.

Wat= ts, Thomas D. Book Review of: Poverty and Charity in Medieval Islam: Mamluk

Eqypt, 1250-1517, by Adam Sabra, in Social Development Issues, 24(2),

2002, pp. 72-73.

Web= b, Gisela, ed. Windows of Faith: Muslim Women Scholar-activists in North

America. Syracuse<= /st1:City>, NY.: <= span style=3D'font-size:11.0pt;font-family:Arial'>Syracuse University Press, 2000.

Wei= ss, Holger = “Reorganising Social Welfare Among Muslims: Islamic Vo= luntarism

and Other Forms of Communal Support in Northern Ghana,” Journal of

Religion in Africa, 32 (1), 2002, pp. 83-109.

Zayas, Farishta G. de The Law and Philosophy of Zakat, the Islamic Social Welfare

System. Damascus, = Syria: A.Z. Ab= basi, 1960.

N.B. Not a= ll of the references listed here were actually cited specifically in the paper (m= any were).

P.S. I wis= h to express my thanks to Nancy Kennedy Ashenhart fo= r her work on typing this manuscript.